Why People Believe in Conspiracy Theories

Why People Believe in Conspiracy Theories Basics Print Why People Believe in Conspiracy Theories By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on June 24, 2019 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on July 17, 2019 Verywell / Andrea Hickey More in Psychology Basics Psychotherapy Student Resources History and Biographies Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming In This Article Table of Contents Expand Explanations Effects Risks Reducing Conspiracy Beliefs View All Back To Top There has been a growing interest in recent years in why people believe in conspiracy theories. Recent controversial examples of such theories include the belief that terrorist attacks and mass shootings were staged events orchestrated by the U.S. government. Other examples include the belief that the pharmaceutical industry intentionally spreads diseases or that vaccines cause illness rather than prevent them. While it might seem like these beliefs are rare or even pathological, research has shown that they are surprisingly common. Polls suggest that over one-third of U.S. adults believe that global warming is a hoax. Another study found that half of all Americans believe in at least one conspiracy theory. What Is a Conspiracy Theory? A conspiracy theory can be defined as the belief that there are groups that meet in secret to plan and carry out malevolent goals. What explains this common and often deep-rooted belief that powerful, sinister, and secretive groups are conspiring to deceive others â€" particularly in a day and age where we have more access to information and facts that might debunk many of these ideas? Researchers suspect that there are a number of psychological mechanisms that contribute to these beliefs, many of which may be the result of evolutionary processes. In a world where you might feel powerless and alienated, it can be appealing to believe that there are forces plotting against your interests. Once these beliefs take root, cognitive biases and mental shortcuts reinforce and strengthen them. Many of the same factors that fuel other types of problematic thinking, such as a belief in the paranormal, also contribute to conspiracy theories. And while such paranoid ideas are not new, the internet has helped transform the way and the speed in which they are spread. In order to understand why people believe in these conspiracies, it is important to explore some of the psychological explanations and the potential effects these beliefs have. 10 Cognitive Biases That Distort Your Thinking Explanations Researchers suggest that there are a number of different reasons why people believe in conspiracy theories. Many of these explanations boil down to three key driving factors: A need for understanding and consistency (epistemic)A need for control (existential)A need to belong or feel special (social) Epistemic Reasons Epistemic explanations refer to the desire to derive certainty and understanding. The world can be a confusing place filled with events that may seem dangerous and chaotic. People are driven to explain the things that happen in the world around them. Doing so helps them build up a consistent, stable, and clear understanding of how the world works. Factors That Increase Conspiracy Belief: In situations involving large-scale events, where more mundane or small-scale explanations seem inadequateIn situations where people experience distress over uncertainty When people encounter disparate information, it is only natural to look for explanations that connect the dots. Conspiracy theories offer explanations that provide this connection. They also suggest that the underlying causes are hidden from public view. When confusing things happen, believers can then assume that it is because they are being intentionally deceived by outside forces. There is also a connection between conspiracy beliefs and educational levels. Lower educational status tends to be associated with higher levels of conspiracy belief. Having lower analytical abilities and less tolerance for uncertainty also play a role. As a result, people turn to conspiracy theories to provide explanations for events that seem confusing or frightening. The confirmation bias can also play a role in the development of conspiracy belief. People are naturally inclined to seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs. So when they run across a theory that supports something that they already think is true, they are more likely to believe the information is also true. How Your Brain Plays Tricks on You Existential Reasons There is also evidence that people turn to conspiracy theories as a way of feeling safer and more in control. When people feel threatened in some way, detecting sources of danger can be a way of coping with anxiety. What The Research Suggests: One study found that people who feel psychologically and sociopolitically disempowered are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories.Another study found that people are also more likely to believe in conspiracies when they are experiencing anxiety. While researchers understand these existential motivations, there is little evidence that believing in these theories actually helps people satisfy their need to feel control and autonomy. In fact, by believing in these theories, people may actually be less likely to engage in actions that would potentially boost their sense of control (such as voting or participating in political activity). So while people may be drawn to conspiracy theories as a way of making sense of the world and feeling more in control of their own destiny, the long-term effects may actually leave people feeling more disempowered than ever before. Social Reasons People can also be motivated to believe in conspiracy due to social reasons. Some researchers have hypothesized that by believing in conspiracies that cast out-groups as the opposition, people are able to feel better about themselves and their own social group. Those who believe in the conspiracy feel that they are the “heroes” of the story, while those who are conspiring against them are “the enemy.” People Believe In Conspiracies When: They are on the “losing” side of a political issueThey have a lower social status due to income or ethnicityThey have experienced social ostracismThey are prejudiced against “enemy” groups they perceive as powerful Such findings suggest that conspiracy belief might arise as a sort of defense mechanism. When people feel disadvantaged, they are motivated to find ways to boost their own self-perceptions. Blaming others by linking them to malevolent plots provides a scapegoat on which to lay blame, thus improving how conspiracy believers view themselves. The belief in conspiracies is also rooted in what is referred to as collective narcissism. This is the belief that your own social group is better, yet less appreciated, by other people. People who feel that they or their social group have been victimized are also less likely to believe in government institutions and more likely to believe in conspiracies. The way in which people encounter and share these ideas should also be noted. It’s easy to dismiss a story shared by a random source that you don’t trust. But when multiple people in your social circle who you do know and trust all seem to believe the same story, it starts to seem less like a silly conspiracy and more like a trusted fact. Sharing these kinds of stories within our networks gives social credence to such conspiratorial thinking. How Your Decisions Are Biased by the First Thing You Hear Effects While researchers have some good theories about why people believe in conspiracies, it is less clear what the ultimate effects of these beliefs are. What researchers have found is that while these beliefs are motivated by a desire to understand, exert control, and feel socially connected, these aren’t the effects people are deriving from their beliefs. Rather than fulfilling these needs, believing in conspiracies seems to reinforce feelings of confusion, isolation, disenfranchisement, and loneliness. It is a destructive cycle - negative feelings contribute to the belief in conspiracies, yet the belief in conspiracies results in negative feelings. Believing in conspiracy theories erodes people’s trust in their government, their leaders, and their institutions. It also diminishes trust in science and research itself. This distrust may discourage people from participating in their social worlds. It might also cause people to stop seeing themselves as valuable contributors to society. Rather than helping people cope with their feelings of social alienation and political disenfranchisement, conspiracy beliefs seem to create a cycle of distrust that leads to even greater disempowerment. Risks Believing in things that are not true poses a number of dangers, which can have real effects that impact individual behavior and ultimately have a ripple impact on society as a whole. A resurgence in Measles outbreaks in the U.S. has been largely attributed to a refusal by some individuals to vaccinate â€" a refusal that stems largely from the conspiratorial belief that vaccines cause autism and other health ailments. Failing to address dangerous misbeliefs presents a potential danger to public health and even the political process itself. Faulty beliefs lead can lead people to not vaccinate, not vote, or, in some rare cases, even engage in dangerous or violent behavior. 4 Sneaky Mental Biases That Can Affect Your Health Choices Overcoming Conspiracy Theory Beliefs In the age of disinformation, finding ways to refute conspiracy beliefs seems more important than ever. Social platforms claim to be buckling down on those who peddle and profit off of conspiracies, but is it really possible to change such views once they’ve taken root? One problem faced when trying to disprove conspiracy theories is that people who hold these beliefs also tend to suspect that there are factions engaged in covering up these activities. Those trying to debunk the mistaken beliefs are then viewed as simply being actors in the conspiracy itself. While it might be tempting to simply mock conspiracy theories, especially the more ridiculous ones, this usually causes believers to dig in their heels and deepen their commitment to their belief. Many factors that contribute to conspiratorial beliefs, such as educational background and personality, are not easily or quickly changed. Researchers have found one tactic, however, that is effective â€" encouraging believers to pursue their goals. People tend to take one of two approaches in the pursuit of goals. Those who are promotion-focused believe that they have the power and control to shape their future.People who are prevention-focused, on the other hand, are more focused on protecting what they already have rather than on achieving their goals. Feeling In Control Reduces Conspiratorial Thinking So what does this have to do with conspiracy beliefs? Researchers found that promotion-focused people were more skeptical and less likely to buy into conspiracies. Why? People who believe that the future hinges on their own actions have a great deal of personal agency and control. It is this sense of autonomy and agency that makes people less likely to believe in secret plots and nefarious plans. What the researchers also discovered was that giving people a nudge in the direction of a more promotion-focused mindset could actually reduce belief in conspiracies. In practical terms, promoting messages that help people feel more in control can minimize conspiratorial thinking. Write It Down Researchers had study participants write down their aspirations, which helped them focus on their goals and what they could do to achieve them. This simple activity encourages people to take a more promotion-focused mindset and reduces conspiracy belief. While researchers have been able to reduce conspiratorial thinking in the lab, how applicable is this in the real world? In workplace settings, managers might employ this strategy to help minimize water-cooler worries, office gossip, and interpersonal friction. Regular discussions that center on employee goals and strategies to achieve those goals can help keep workers feeling more in control and less subject to corporate whims. In terms of public health, organizations might start by promoting messages focused on realistic things people can do to take control of their own health. Building this sort of action-oriented mindset may help discourage belief in health-related conspiracies and build greater trust between medical organizations and health consumers. A Word From Verywell Conspiratorial thinking can be problematic and dangerous (Pizzagate, anyone?), but this does not mean that skepticism of institutions, marketing, and media messaging is not warranted. After all, not all conspiracies are false (the Tuskegee experiments and Iran-Contra are just a couple of examples). As you encounter information from various sources, it is important to be able to distinguish between false conspiracy theories and real threats to personal security. While it may be tempting to ridicule conspiracy believers, remember that these sort of beliefs are actually pretty common â€" you probably even believe in some of them. In a world where people feel the very real effects of power imbalances and distrust in leadership, conspiracy theories will naturally flourish, which means discouraging this type of thinking is not always easy. Dunning-Kruger Effect: Why Incompetent People Think They Are Superior

Making Illegal Money Clean - 691 Words

Money laundering, as the name suggests, is the act of making unreported or money or income appear as if the money has been earned through legal acquisition. It could take just one transaction or several processes, depending on the amount and the origin of the money. In its simplest forms, people with huge sums of money earned by illegal means can walk up to a bank and deposit their money. However, this method easily raises suspicion in most countries. For example, the United States have implemented laws that made it more difficult to utilize banks for money laundering. Under the Bank Secrecy Act of 1970, banks are required to report any transaction that exceeds $10,000 to the government. Fishman (2006) also added that it â€Å"has been strengthened by subsequent legislation, making it a formidable tool for fighting money laundering and curbing the funding of terrorist activities† (p. 62). 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Essay Linguistic Communication Barriers - 1831 Words

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Research principles and practice of Cloud Computing Free Essays

BACKGROUND OF STUDY Cloud computing has become a new trend of advancement in the world of information technology today in which information technology resources are delivered as a service via the internet (Yao et al, 2010). From this, it is assumed that it is the newest internet-based technology. The increasing growth of this new technology coupled with it imminent productivity and benefit has made most organisations turn to the cloud. We will write a custom essay sample on Research principles and practice of Cloud Computing or any similar topic only for you Order Now The reason being that most organisations can now deploy and manage their IT services via a virtual machine in the cloud, this reduces the enormous cost being spent on setting up, managing and maintaining previous local systems and infrastructure. Through adoption, the benefits gained from the use of cloud computing has geared most organisations now not tend not to only move their application services but also their databases. Hogan (2008) said in his published article on ‘Cloud Computing Databases’ that â€Å"Cloud database usage patterns are evolving, and business adoption of these technologies accelerates that evolution†. Also, there is now absolute control over data being migrated from internal IT infrastructure to external cloud. A framework that would enable organisation migration to cloud was proposed by Guo (2010). However, there are bottlenecks such as storage capacity, performance and ease of report generation when data is being moved from local infrastructure to the cloud. There is the issue of capacity when migrating data to the cloud (Stacy, 2009). How do we then know which of these emerging cloud-based database technologies would serve the desired needs and wants of various organisation plann ing to migrate their data to the cloud. It is in view of this, that this research would examine the present adoption state of cloud-based database technologies and their uses, analyse the issues involved in moving data (BSMS) from local infrastructure to different cloud-based DBMS, perform an experiment to differentiate performance prospects of the alternative cloud-based DBMS, present the findings and make recommendations on suitable cloud-based DBMS technology choice based on optimum performance level. RESEARCH QUESTION Considering this age of global technological advancement, the use of cloud-based DBMS has become a more viable option for business and research organisations. Instead of deploying and maintaining internal IT/database infrastructure which is quite expensive, organisations now outsource their IT services including database management to cloud computing service providers on contract basis. The full adoption of cloud computing services is imminent; and the awareness of both business and research organisations to which cloud-based DBMS offers optimum performance is what prompted the research question discussed below. What is the difference in performance of different cloud-based DBMS technologies? The scope of the research will be limited to testing the performance of three (3) widely adopted cloud-based DBMS technologies using BSMS data source as case study. Cloud-based DBMS technologies such as SimpleDB, Database.com and OracleCloud would be taken into consideration and performance analysis would be carried out on them. RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES The aim of this project research is to carry out performance investigation and through that means offer credible performance information on the selected cloud-based DBMS technologies. This would stand as a pedagogical material for both business and research organisation in the business of migrating to the newly emerged technology of cloud computing. The under listed objectives would serve as an aid to achieving this sole aim. To investigate what cloud-based DBMS is and its adoption: The will help to shed more lights on what cloud-based DBMS is and its present stage of adoption. To investigate how databases are being used in the cloud for business and research purposes: This is to enable all stakeholders especially business oriented organisations to be aware of how databases are being used in the cloud and probably there might be some specific functionality that will help enhance their business or research goals. To analyse the issues involved in moving data (BSMS) from local infrastructure to different cloud-based DBMS technologies: An analysis of issues involved in moving data from local system to the cloud would be carried out. Issues such as capacity, compatibility and so on would be accessed here. The BSMS data would be used as a case study in analysing this migration issues. To carry out an experiment to differentiate the performance of the different cloud-based DBMS technologies: A scientific experiment would be carried out to test the performance of two or three cloud-based DBMS technologies. The experiment would be based on testing certain performance criteria such as indexing, fast data query, report generation and so on. To present the findings and make recommendations on suitable cloud-based DBMS technology choice based on optimum performance level: The findings from the scientific experiment would be used to draw out possible conclusions and necessary recommendations that would enlighten all stakeholders opting for a move to cloud-based database technology on the best choice of such system based on their performance. LITERATURE REVIEW RESEARCH METHODS, TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES This research would be delivered using a deductive approach which is also known as top down approach. This approach offers a deductive reasoning from a general point of view to a more specific one. Considering the fact that the research would be a performance comparison between different technologies, then it is suitable. Koen et al (2005) says â€Å"it applies a theoretical, actor decision framework to derive relations deductively using detailed field data†. It uses a water fall model design of deriving a premise from an observation. A hypothesis in form of a research question would be derived, an experimental design inform of an observation would be used to analyse the data and the specified conclusion would be drawn from the findings. Therefore, the proposed research will be conducted within a framework of cross-sectional research design and methodology. This research would be in form of a scientific experiment because a survey based analysis would be inadequate to test the performance of the different cloud-based DBMS technologies. The experiment would be carried out using the Scientific Method in order to obtain precise and accurate conclusions from the hypothesis and observation drawn. Considering the research question, an experiment which serves as a quantitative method of gathering data would be most appropriate to generate premises and findings that could be analysed to draw conclusions and recommendations to answering the research question. Although, it is a time consuming method but it is relevant to achieving the stated objectives of the proposed research. Three cloud-based DBMS technologies namely SimpleDB, Database.com and OracleCloud are would serve as the specimen in conducting this research experiment. A scientific method would be employed in order to derive a hypothesis to give a clear description about the performance of each cloud-based DBMS. There are other types of experiment methods such as the Pseudoscientific Method that can be used in carrying out an experiment. In this research, the chosen method will be a scientific method which is more appropriate because it is the most productive and suitable for analysing the samples specimen selected for the research. It is more reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary for the representation of a real world scenario than the Pseudoscientific Method. â€Å"The Scientific Method helps to organize thoughts and procedures so that scientists can be confident in the answers they find† (Science Made Simple, 2009). Alternatively, a quantitative approach in form of a self administered questionnaire could also be used to collect primary data. This research method is cheap, quick and very easy to administer compared to other methods. (Bryman, 2008) The quantitative questionnaire will collect information on the respondent demographic characteristics such as the age, gender, area of study, level of study, job responsibilities, and work experience. In addition, their opinion on cloud-based DBMS computing in terms of perception and adoption will be collected. However, this form of quantitative approach would not be sufficient in determining the performance of this existing technology as this is the sole aim of this research. This is due to that fact that, this emerging technology has not being fully implemented by most organisations. As recommendation for future work, self administered questionnaire could also be used to collect primary data on individuals and organisational opinion for adopting a clo ud-based DBMS technology. Relevant existing literature such as books, journals, articles, newspapers magazine and other acceptable and reliable sources will also be used to generate secondary data. These secondary data would serve as a basis of literature review and evaluation of cloud-based DBMS technology. RESEARCH PROCESS As stated earlier on, the research would be carried out using a scientific experimental method to gather required information. A dummy data source would be used to perform the experiment. The BSMS data would be used in studying and analysing the performance of these different cloud-based DBMS. The BSMS data would be moved into the different cloud-based systems. Series of performance test would be carried out on each of them as a standalone and a comparison analysis would follow using some criteria such as indexing, fast retrieval of data, report generation. Furthermore, the method of analysing the data collected from the experiment would be microanalysis as proposed by Strauss et al (1990).The process of microanalysis involves that the data collected will be coded into probable emergent themes which will be based on personal judgement and supported by relevant evidences. When a new data is been collected, the same method of microanalysis by coding is applied, these new codes will then be compared with the previous codes. This process is known as ‘constant comparison’ which is done when a new data is collected, it continues until no new insights can be obtained from the collected data. Consequently high level factors and inter-relationship will be abstracted, thus premises can be derived based on these factors. Conclusion The issue of ethics would be duly considered in the course of this research. Some necessary factors such as experimental condition, subjective interpretation of data and proper derivation of a unified conclusion would be taken into consideration. Other issues such as control experiment, data protection and copyright would be considered adequately. All the laws of confidentiality and data protection would be duly complied with during the process of this research. How to cite Research principles and practice of Cloud Computing, Essays

The Role of Civic Education Essays - Democracy, Civics,

The Role of Civic Education The Role of Civic Education I. Introduction Societies have long had an interest in the ways in which their young are prepared for citizenship and in how they learn to take part in civic life. Today that interest might better be described as a concern-in fact as a growing concern, particularly in democratic societies. There is evidence aplenty that no country, including our own United States, has achieved the level of understanding and acceptance of the rights and responsibilities among the totality of its citizens that is required for the maintenance and improvement of any constitutional democracy. In the past decade we have witnessed dramatic demands for freedom on the part of peoples from Asia to Africa and from Central and Eastern Europe to Latin America. And as we have seen one totalitarian or authoritarian regime after another toppled and fledgling democratic governments replace them, we may have become too optimistic about the future of democracy. We also may have become too complacent, too sure of democracy's robustness or of its long term viability. History, however, teaches us that few countries have sustained democratic governments for prolonged periods, a lesson which we as Americans are sometimes inclined to forget. Americans, of course, should take pride and confidence from the fact that they live in the world's oldest constitutional democracy and that the philosophical foundations underlying their political institutions serve as a model for aspiring peoples around the world. The "shot heard 'round the world" two centuries ago at the opening of the American Revolut ion continues to resound today, and it should remind Americans that free institutions are among humanity's highest achievements and worthy of their full energies and earnest devotion to preserve. Americans also should realize that civic education is essential to sustain our constitutional democracy. The habits of the mind, as well as "habits of the heart," the dispositions that inform the democratic ethos, are not inherited. As Alexis de Toqueville pointed out, each new generation is a new people that must acquire the knowledge, learn the skills, and develop the dispositions or traits of private and public character that undergird a constitutional democracy. Those dispositions must be fostered and nurtured by word and study and by the power of example. Democracy is not a "machine that would go of itself," but must be consciously reproduced, one generation after another. Civic education, therefore, is-or should be-a prime concern. There is no more important task than the development of an informed, effective, and responsible citizenry. Democracies are sustained by citizens who have the requisite knowledge, skills, and dispositions. Absent a reasoned commitment on the part of its citizens to the fundamental values and principles of democracy, a free and open society cannot succeed. It is imperative, therefore, that educators, policymakers, and members of civil society make the case and ask for the support of civic education from all segments of society and from the widest range of institutions and governments. It is relatively easy for a society to produce technically competent people. But the kind of society Americans want to live in and the kind of government they want to have requires effort and commitment on the part of its citizens. Americans want a society and a government in which human rights are respected in which the individual's dignity and worth are acknowledged in which the rule of law is observed in which people willingly fulfill their responsibilities, and in which the common good is the concern of all. Making that kind of society, that kind of government a reality is the most important challenge Americans face and the most important work they could undertake. II.What is civic education? Civic Education in a democracy is education in self government. Democratic self government means that citizens are actively involved in their own governance; they do not just passively accept the dictums of others or acquiesce to the demands of others. As Aristotle put it in his Politics (c 340 BC), "If liberty and equality, as is thought by some, are chiefly to be found in democracy, they will be attained when all persons alike share in the government to the utmost." In other words, the ideals of democracy are most completely realized when every member of the political community shares

Free Essays on Education Summary

Education in our society is concerned with very repetitive systems of learning. Such as the â€Å"three R’s† reading, writing, and arithmetic as well as many morals and values. The rise of education in the U.S. came about very slowly. Even after the Emancipation Proclimation came about black still could not attend schools. State laws prohibited schooling for blacks, hispanics, american indians, and chinese immigrants. Attendance was enforced at least till Eight grade for whites. In 1910 less than 10% of American 18 yr. olds graduated high school. It rose steadily but by the 1930’s it was less than half. After WWII college and high school attendance rose. The main cause was the GI bill, which gave 20 million american who participated in the past war to attend college, federal loans and the growth of community colleges also helped. The rate were not equal between races. Whites increased from 26% in 1940 to 93% in 1990. Blacks increased from 9 % in 1940 to 88% in 1998. In the US it is common that kids are sent to schools. But in other societies such as the pastoral, parents teach kids how to gathwer food and take care of land. Functionalist theories state education accomplishes certain functions. Among these functions are socializtion, occuipational training, and social training. Socialization is brought about through the paaing of cultural hertiage. The heritage include book smarts, and morals, ethics, poltics, religion, habits and norms. Occupational training is important in industrialzed areas like the U.S.. Jobs were passed on through out the family. Alot of jobs and occupations are still being passed on today, particularly among the upper class. Social control is also a function of education, but not as obvious. They are called latent functions. Increased immigrantion and urbanization brought about increased crime as well. In conflict with the fundementalist theory, which state... Free Essays on Education Summary Free Essays on Education Summary Education in our society is concerned with very repetitive systems of learning. Such as the â€Å"three R’s† reading, writing, and arithmetic as well as many morals and values. The rise of education in the U.S. came about very slowly. Even after the Emancipation Proclimation came about black still could not attend schools. State laws prohibited schooling for blacks, hispanics, american indians, and chinese immigrants. Attendance was enforced at least till Eight grade for whites. In 1910 less than 10% of American 18 yr. olds graduated high school. It rose steadily but by the 1930’s it was less than half. After WWII college and high school attendance rose. The main cause was the GI bill, which gave 20 million american who participated in the past war to attend college, federal loans and the growth of community colleges also helped. The rate were not equal between races. Whites increased from 26% in 1940 to 93% in 1990. Blacks increased from 9 % in 1940 to 88% in 1998. In the US it is common that kids are sent to schools. But in other societies such as the pastoral, parents teach kids how to gathwer food and take care of land. Functionalist theories state education accomplishes certain functions. Among these functions are socializtion, occuipational training, and social training. Socialization is brought about through the paaing of cultural hertiage. The heritage include book smarts, and morals, ethics, poltics, religion, habits and norms. Occupational training is important in industrialzed areas like the U.S.. Jobs were passed on through out the family. Alot of jobs and occupations are still being passed on today, particularly among the upper class. Social control is also a function of education, but not as obvious. They are called latent functions. Increased immigrantion and urbanization brought about increased crime as well. In conflict with the fundementalist theory, which state...

How Logical Fallacy Invalidates Any Argument

How Logical Fallacy Invalidates Any Argument Fallacies are defects that cause an argument to be invalid, unsound, or weak. Logical fallacies can be separated into two general groups: formal and informal. A formal fallacy is a defect which can be identified merely by looking at the logical structure of an argument, rather than at any specific statements. Informal fallacies are defects which can be identified only through an analysis of the actual content of the argument. Formal Fallacies Formal fallacies are found only in deductive arguments with identifiable forms. One of the things which makes them appear reasonable is the fact that they look like and mimic valid logical arguments, but are in fact invalid. Here is an example: Premise: All humans are mammals.Premise: All cats are mammals.Conclusion: All humans are cats. Both premises in this argument are true, but the conclusion is false. The defect is a formal fallacy, and can be demonstrated by reducing the argument to its bare structure: All A are CAll B are CAll A are B It does not matter what A, B, and C stand for. We could replace them with wines, milk, and beverages. The argument would still be invalid for the exact same reason. It can be helpful to reduce an argument to its structure and ignore content in order to see if it is valid. Informal Fallacies Informal fallacies are defects which can be identified only through an analysis of the actual content of the argument, rather than through its structure. Here is an example: Premise: Geological events produce rock.Premise: Rock is a type of music.Conclusion: Geological events produce music. The premises in this argument are true but clearly, the conclusion is false. Is the defect a formal fallacy or an informal fallacy? To see if this is actually a formal fallacy, we have to break it down to its basic structure: A BB CA C This structure is valid. Therefore, the defect cannot be a formal fallacy and must instead be an informal fallacy that is identifiable from the content. When we examine the content, we find that a key term (rock) is being used with two different definitions. Informal fallacies can work in several ways. Some distract the reader from what is really going on. Some, like in the above example, make use of ambiguity to cause confusion. Defective Arguments There are many ways to categorize fallacies. Aristotle was the first to try to systematically describe and categorize them, identifying 13 fallacies divided into two groups. Since then,  many more have been described and the categorization has become more complicated. The categorization used here should prove useful, but it is not the only valid way of organizing fallacies. Fallacies of Grammatical Analogy Arguments with this defect have a structure that is grammatically close to arguments which are valid and make no fallacies. Because of this close similarity, a reader can be distracted into thinking that a bad argument is actually valid. Fallacies of Ambiguity With these fallacies, some sort of ambiguity is introduced either in the premises or in the conclusion itself. This way, an apparently false idea can be made to appear true so long as the reader does not notice the problematic definitions. Examples: Equivocation FallacyNo True Scotsman FallacyQuoting out of ContextFallacies of Relevance These fallacies all make use of premises which are logically irrelevant to the final conclusion. Examples: Ad HominemAppeals to AuthorityAppeals to Emotion and DesireFallacies of Presumption Logical fallacies of presumption arise because the premises already assume what they are supposed to prove. This is invalid because there is no point in trying to prove something you already assume to be true. No one who needs to have something proven to them will accept a premise which already assumes the truth of that idea. Examples: Begging the QuestionComplex QuestionFalse DilemmaFallacies of Weak Induction With this type of fallacy, there may be an apparent logical connection between the premises and the conclusion. However, if that connection is real, then it is too weak to support the conclusion. Examples: Ad Hoc RationalizationOversimplification Exaggeration Sources Barker, Stephen F. Elements of Logic. Hardcover - 1675, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Curti, Gary N. Weblog. Fallacy Files, March 31, 2019.   Edwards, Paul (Editor). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Hardcover, 1st edition, Macmillan/Collier, 1972. Engel, S. Morris. With Good Reason: An Introduction to Informal Fallacies. Sixth Edition, Bedford/St. Martins, March 21, 2014. Hurley, Patrick J. A Concise Introduction to Logic. 12 Edition, Cengage Learning, January 1, 2014. Salmon, Merrilee H. Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking. 6th Edition, Cengage Learning, January 1, 2012. Vos Savant, Marilyn. The Power of Logical Thinking: Easy Lessons in the Art of Reasoning...and Hard Facts About Its Absence in Our Lives. Hardcover, 1st edition, St Martins Press, March 1, 1996.